Ndombolo, also known as dombolo, is a genre of dance music originating in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[1][2][3][4] Derived from soukous in the 1990s, with fast-paced hip-swaying dance rhythms, often accompanied by upbeat, percussion-driven music, the style became widespread in the mid-1990s and the subsequent decade, dominating dancefloors in central, eastern, and western Africa. It inspired West African popular music, coupé-décalé, Kuduro, and East African dance music.[1][4][5][6][7]

Ndombolo customarily features lead vocalists, backup vocalists, guitars, horns, drums, and synthesized sounds.[8] The lyrics often explore themes of human relations, marriage, courtship, trickery, disappointment, and Congolese sociopolitical culture.[9][10][11] Prominent musicians such as Papa Wemba, Dany Engobo, Koffi Olomide, Werrason, Awilo Longomba, Quartier Latin International, Général Defao, Aurlus Mabélé, Extra Musica, Wenge Musica, and Wenge Musica Maison Mère played a pivotal role in popularizing the genre.[11][12][13][14][15]

Etymology

Etymologically, "ndombolo" derives from Kikongo, meaning "to ask or solicit".[16] The lexicologist Arizona M. Baongoli, specializing in Lingala, expounds that "ndombolo" encapsulates a genre of Congolese dance, literally meaning "gorilla" or "chimpanzee".[16] The dance choreography involves hip gyrations, showcasing the posterior while executing forward and backward movements. Baongoli posits that this stylized dance mimics gorillas' and chimpanzees' gait, dance, or movements during courtship rituals.[16] The Parisian writer Milau K. Lutumba elucidates that this metaphorical construct emerged as a collective expression of the Congolese populace's hope for an end to the brutality, terror, injustice, and misery perpetuated during the reign of president Mobutu Sese Seko.[17] The genesis of the term coincided with Mobutu's ouster from power by the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL), led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila.[17] In the aftermath of Mobutu's exile in May 1997, musicians immortalized Kabila as the embodiment of "ndombolo". Lutumba notes that this symbolic renaming marked a turning point in the country's history, signifying a desire for positive change and a departure from the oppressive era.[17] The term took on additional layers of meaning when president Kabila, seen for the first time on television in 1996, was immediately identified as a ndombolo—a dwarf, a characterization stemming from the extensive time he spent in the bush as a guerrilla fighter, highlighting his pliability, elasticity, and strategic intelligence, reminiscent of the smart monkeys often depicted in African tales.[17] In African folklore, the monkey character is portrayed as an intelligent figure who, through wit and cunning, prevails over larger, stronger animals such as lions and leopards.[17]

Form

Ndombolo's dance style is characterized by convulsive and fast-paced hip movements, often involving a side-to-side swaying motion. Men typically bend low and box in the air while women undulate their hips and bottoms with plenty of facial expressions.[18][19][20] The hip-swaying is often accompanied by synchronized footwork and precise leg movements while maintaining a relatively stationary upper body. Ndombolo is usually danced in pairs or groups. Dancers form close connections with their partners and engage in flirtatious movements that reflect the connection present in the accompanying music.[18][21][19]

History

Origins

During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Franco Luambo, Tabu Ley Rochereau, and Zaïko Langa Langa revolutionized soukous by expurgating the horn sections and wind instruments and elevating the snare drum and electric guitars.[22][23][19] Nelson George notes that this transformation resulted in high-octane auditory that produced hits and dance crazes that gained popularity across Africa and major European cities, launching the careers of many homegrown artists, most notably world music singer Papa Wemba.[19] However, the fiscal insolvency that befell Congolese record labels such as Parions-Congo, Parions Mondenge, International Don-Dass, and Molende Kwi Kwi following the collapse of the Mazadis, Sophinza S.P.R.L., and Izason recording labels, coupled with the transition from vinyl to compact discs, led to national phonographic production sinking into lethargy during the 1980s.[24] Foreign labels specializing in African and Caribbean music took over, starting with SonoDisc and Sonima (France). However, this also gave the Democratic Republic of the Congo a substantive platform for the proliferation and cultivation of homegrown artists.[24]

Formation

Koffi Olomide and Papa Wemba in 1988

By the denouement of the 1990s, artists like Koffi Olomide, Général Defao, and the band Wenge Musica joined the SonoDisc, orchestrating a paradigm shift that transmogrified soukous into raunchy, fast-paced dance music, renaming it "ndombolo." Ndombolo became one of the popular dance styles with convulsive booty-shaking across Africa and into the African diaspora of Belgium, France, the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada, as well as the United States.[19][25][26] Koffi's 1997 eponymous single "Loi" dominated Africa's music charts and abroad with a combination of his deep baritone voice, sophisticated arrangements, blending old-school rumba and silky keyboard melodies, and pinnacling in a searing guitar climax.[27][28][29] This triumphal prelude laid the foundation for subsequent magnum opuses, exemplified by Extra-Musica's "Etat-Major (1998)," Koffi's "Droit de Veto (1998)," Werrason's opulent compositions in "Solola Bien (1999)," as well as Mpiana's "Toujours Humble (2000)."[27]

Censorship and resurgence

In the early 2000s, numerous African television stations banned ndombolo due to its perceived "pornographic" nature, alleging that it sullied youth morality. In Cameroon, ndombolo faced prohibition for being deemed excessively erotic and obscene, causing hesitation in programming it on their schedules. Critics contended that Cameroon's imposition emanated from the belief that ndombolo encroached upon Cameroonian music genres like makossa and bikutsi.[30][31] By January 2004, the ban extended to Congolese state-operated radio and television outlets.[31][32] In Senegal, specific hosts of Radiodiffusion Télévision Sénégalaise (RTS) faced lightning strikes as a consequence of their association with ndombolo.[32] Paradoxically, despite prohibitions, record sales surged, and new releases continued to dominate SMART discos, sweat-box bars, and clubs across Africa, with its trademark bass, tingling guitars, and soaring falsettos setting pulses racing. In Europe, the sound became synonymous with African music, catapulting artists like Papa Wemba into high demand.[33][34]

Fally Ipupa performing at Culture Palace of Abidjan, February 2008

Koffi released his album Monde Arabe on 7 December 2004, gaining traction for blending ndombolo and Congolese rumba, accentuated by acoustic guitar interludes.[35] Meanwhile, Fally Ipupa's "Original" became a standout hit in 2014, reigniting interest in the genre after prominent ndombolo artists migrated to Europe.[36][37][38][39][40][41] This was accompanied by Koffi's subsequent triumphant releases, including "Selfie" (2015)[42][43] and the 2017 sensation "Tshou Tshou Tshou," pulsated through bars and clubs, inducing spontaneous dance.[44]

Ya Levis Dalwear in 2022

In June 2018, BM released a remix of his single "Rosalina," featuring Awilo Longomba, which gave rise to the "#RosalinaChallenge" trend on TikTok, Instagram, and YouTube. This trend features exhilarating ndombolo motions synchronized with the pulsating Congolese rhythms, encapsulating the precise articulation of the entire corporeal form, from limbs to waist.[45][46][47][48][49] "Ecole," from Fally's November 2018 album Control, introduced a new dance known as the "Ecole dance," synonymous with ndombolo dance moves, embraced by numerous dancers on social networks.[50][51][52][53]

Emerging ndombolo artists like Innoss'B, Robinio Mundibu, Gaz Mawete, and Paris-based singer Ya Levis Dalwear surfaced. On 7 September 2019, Inoss'B released a remix of his popular song "Yope" featuring Tanzanian singer Diamond Platnumz, which became one the most-viewed ndombolo songs on Youtube as well as the first song in East Africa and Central Africa to surpass 150 Million views.[54][55] In November 2020, Diamond Platnumz released a successful crossover ndombolo-infused Swahili song, "Waah," featuring Koffi. "Waah" became the first Sub-Saharan African song to reach two million views on YouTube in less than 24 hours.[56][57][58] In June 2021, Tanzania singer Ali Kiba released his single hit "Ndombolo," featuring K2ga, Tommy Flavour, and Abdu Kiba, which was later featured as a sample song for the ndombolo music genre on the Grammy Awards website.[59]

Influence

French rap

Ndombolo has strongly impacted French rap from Congolese diasporas, where the Congolese solo guitar is audible in their music.[27] The group Bisso Na Bisso ("between us" in Lingala) pioneered the infusion of congolese guitar patterns and rhythms into French rap in late 90's.[60]

French rapper Naza pioneered the infusion of ndombolo rhythms into French rap. In September 2017, Naza released his platinum-certified album Incroyable, predominantly blending ndombolo rhythms. Adorned with lead guitar tributes to musical collectives like Wenge Musica, Extra Musica, Quartier Latin, and Viva La Musica, the album emerged as a defining ndombolo-rap fusion in France.[61][62][63] Its lead singles, "Sac À Dos," "Sans problèmes," "Pas demain," "Caleçon," and "La débauche," featured rhythmic waist movements, enhanced by deliberate, methodical leg and hand motions in unison.[61] In the album's single "Moi je vérifie," featuring Dadju and Aya Nakamura, Naza introduced a singing style synchronized with the rhythm of a dry guitar.[61] This success paved the way for subsequent hits like Dadju's "Mafuzzy Style (2018)," Belgian rapper Damso's "Même issue," and Maître Gims with "Na Lingui Yo," which means "I love you."[27][64][65][66]

References

  1. 1 2 Tchakam, Stéphane (2 December 2003). "Cameroun : L'autre danse congolaise". Cameroon Tribune (in French). Retrieved 8 November 2023.
  2. ↑ White, Bob W. (1999). "Modernity's Trickster: "Dipping" and "Throwing" in Congolese Popular Dance Music". Research in African Literatures. 30 (4): 156–175. ISSN 0034-5210. JSTOR 3820759.
  3. ↑ Knights, Vanessa (29 April 2016). Music, National Identity and the Politics of Location: Between the Global and the Local. Thames, Oxfordshire United Kingdom: Routledge. p. 208. ISBN 978-1-317-09160-8.
  4. 1 2 Otiso, Kefa M. (24 January 2013). Culture and Customs of Tanzania. New York City, New York State, United States: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 979-8-216-06991-1.
  5. ↑ Sobania, Neal W. (30 June 2003). Culture and Customs of Kenya. Santa Barbara, California, United States: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. pp. 207–208. ISBN 978-0-313-03936-2.
  6. ↑ AfroConex (9 March 2023). "Spreading Ndombolo Dance Across Africa with Bush Sebar". AfroConex. Retrieved 8 November 2023.
  7. ↑ Kabwe, Jason (15 March 2013). "Ndombolo Craze". Czech Radio (in Czech). Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  8. ↑ Falola, Toyin; Jean-Jacques, Daniel (14 December 2015). Africa [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 volumes]. Santa Barbara, California, United States: ABC-CLIO. p. 627. ISBN 978-1-59884-666-9.
  9. ↑ Education, Pan African Society for Musical Arts (2005). Emerging Solutions for Musical Arts Education in Africa. Cape Town, South Africa: African Minds. pp. 333–334. ISBN 978-1-920051-11-2.
  10. ↑ Kuoni, Carin; Haines, Chelsea (22 January 2016). Entry Points: The Vera List Center Field Guide on Art and Social Justice No. 1. Durham, North Carolina, United States: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-7395-7.
  11. 1 2 Anheier, Helmut K.; Isar, Yudhishthir Raj (31 March 2012). Cultures and Globalization: Cities, Cultural Policy and Governance. Thousand Oaks, California, United States: SAGE. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-4462-9172-6.
  12. ↑ Heidenreich-Seleme, Lien; O'Toole, Sean (2012). Über(w)unden: Art in Troubled Times. Johannesburg, South Africa: Jacana Media. p. 66. ISBN 978-1-4314-0497-1.
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  14. ↑ Ndi-Shang, Gil (3 April 2021). The Radio and Other Stories. Spears Media Press. p. 15.
  15. ↑ Seck, Nago (31 August 2007). "Ndombolo". Afrisson (in French). Retrieved 12 November 2023.
  16. 1 2 3 Manzekele, Roger (3 November 2018). "L'Origine de Ndombolo : Lorsque le nom "Ndombolo" est évoqué, beaucoup pensent directement au style musical inspiré de la Rumba et du Soukous congolais". Kongolisolo.co (in French). Retrieved 12 November 2023.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Lutumba, Milau K. (2001). "Atalaku, the People's Eye and Memory From "Ndombolo" to "Plein na Plein": a critique of President L. D. Kabila's regime in popular music". Présence Africaine (163/164): 69–79. ISSN 0032-7638. JSTOR 24352157.
  18. 1 2 Sörgel, Sabine (30 March 2020). Contemporary African Dance Theatre: Phenomenology, Whiteness, and the Gaze. Springer Nature. p. 55. ISBN 978-3-030-41501-3.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 George, Nelson; Carr, Daphne (20 October 2008). Best Music Writing 2008. New York City, New York State, United States: Hachette Books. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-7867-2612-7.
  20. ↑ Epalanga, Kalaf (13 June 2023). Whites Can Dance Too. London, United Kingdom: Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-37145-7.
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  22. ↑ Koskoff, Ellen (2008). The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: Africa ; South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean ; The United States and Canada ; Europe ; Oceania. Thames, Oxfordshire, England, UK: Routledge. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-415-99403-3.
  23. ↑ African, New (15 August 2018). "The mixed legacy of DRC musician Franco". New African Magazine. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  24. 1 2 Tsambu, Léon (2 December 2014). "L'industrie du disque en République démocratique du Congo". Music In Africa (in French). Retrieved 10 November 2023.
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  26. ↑ Makumeno, Emery (1 July 2022). "Musique : qu'est-ce que le clan Wenge, pionnier de la danse Ndombolo ?". BBC News Afrique (in French). Retrieved 12 November 2023.
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  30. ↑ "Anger at Cameroon dance ban; BBC News Archived 2009-06-01 at the Wayback Machine", BBC News, 25 July 2000
  31. 1 2 Falola, Toyin; Jean-Jacques, Daniel (14 December 2015). Africa [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 volumes]. New York City, New York State, United States: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 979-8-216-04273-0.
  32. 1 2 Nzale, Félix (3 February 2004). "Sénégal: Ndombolo, mapuka : ces danses jugées indésirables" [Senegal: Ndombolo, mapuka: these dances considered undesirable]. Sudquotidien.sn (in French). Retrieved 10 November 2023.
  33. ↑ Woods, Sarah (6 July 2017). The 50 Greatest Musical Places. North Road, London, United Kingdom: Icon Books. ISBN 978-1-78578-190-2.
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  37. ↑ Coulibaly, Justin (3 October 2021). "Fally Ipupa n°1 sur YouTube dans quatre pays africains" [Fally Ipupa number 1 on YouTube in four African countries]. Afrik (in French). Retrieved 14 October 2023.
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  45. ↑ "BM Feat Awilo Longamba- Rosalina (Remix) | GetMziki". 4 September 2018. Retrieved 15 September 2023.
  46. ↑ Tabalia, Jedidah (12 November 2019). "South African dance moves that have made it internationally". Briefly. Retrieved 15 September 2023.
  47. ↑ BM shows us how to do Rosalina Challenge - BBC What's New?, retrieved 15 September 2023
  48. ↑ Gachanja, Nelly (13 January 2019). "Top 10 African Dance Styles of 2018 - Africa.com". www.africa.com. Retrieved 15 September 2023.
  49. ↑ "BM". Music In Africa. 10 October 2018. Retrieved 15 September 2023.
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  51. ↑ Jacques, Sika Jean (21 August 2018). "Fally Ipupa est le chanteur congolais le plus vue sur YouTube" [Fally Ipupa is the most viewed Congolese singer on YouTube]. Les Echos du Congo Brazzaville (in French). Retrieved 24 October 2023.
  52. ↑ Sissoko, Ayse (24 July 2018). "RDC – Musiques: Fally Ipupa retourne à l'école du n'dombolo" [DRC – Music: Fally Ipupa returns to the n’dombolo school]. JeuneAfrique.com (in French). Retrieved 24 October 2023.
  53. ↑ Mbote, Redaction (7 January 2021). "Fally Ipupa en visite dans une école en Côte d'Ivoire". Mbote (in French). Retrieved 29 July 2023.
  54. ↑ Milimo, Dennis (29 April 2021). "Diamond & Innoss'B's Yope Remix becomes first song in East Africa to hit 150 Million Views". Pulselive Kenya. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
  55. ↑ Egbejule, Eromo (24 December 2019). "2019 in African pop: 10 must-listen tracks". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
  56. ↑ "Diamond break YouTube record after releasing new music video". 1 December 2020. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
  57. ↑ "Diamond Platnumz's Waah hits 100 million on YouTube". The Citizen. 11 February 2022. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
  58. ↑ Kamau, Richard (22 April 2021). "Revealed: How Much Diamond Earned From 'Waah' Hit on YouTube". Nairobi Wire. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
  59. ↑ Maganga, Charles (29 July 2022). "Ali Kiba's Ndombolo Lands On The Grammy's List | Notjustok East Africa". Latest East African & Bongo Flava Music, Songs & Video - Notjustok. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
  60. ↑ Sauphie, Eva (10 June 2022). "Passi : « Les artistes afro-urbains doivent beaucoup au Bisso Na Bisso »". JeuneAfrique.com (in French).
  61. 1 2 3 Mutombo, Onassis (29 November 2017). "Naza, le (ré)inventeur du « ndombolo » !". Arts.cd (in French). Retrieved 12 November 2023.
  62. ↑ ToniS (31 August 2017). "Naza: le phénomène Creillois sur lequel il faut miser". Booska-p.com (in French). Retrieved 12 November 2023.
  63. ↑ "Les certifications". SNEP (in French). Retrieved 12 November 2023.
  64. ↑ B., Chris (23 January 2021). "Du Congo à la pop internationale, le lingala fait rayonner la culture". La ZEP (in French). Retrieved 10 November 2023.
  65. ↑ Sar, Yerim (9 May 2018). "Le Congo dans le rap français [DOSSIER]". Booska-p.com (in French). Retrieved 10 November 2023.
  66. ↑ Glodi, Besanzami Ngono (11 June 2023). "Mbote ! Le lingala à la conquête du monde (Tribune)". Actualite.cd (in French). Retrieved 10 November 2023.
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