Congolese rumba
Bakolo Music International, the oldest traditional Congolese rumba music group, during a rehearsal in 2014
CountryDemocratic Republic of the Congo and Republic of the Congo
Reference01711
RegionCentral Africa
Inscription history
Inscription2021

Congolese rumba, also known as African rumba, is a dance music genre originating from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire) and the Republic of the Congo (formerly French Congo). With its rhythms, melodies, and lyrics, Congolese rumba has gained global recognition and remains an integral part of African music heritage. In December 2021, it was added to the UNESCO list of intangible cultural heritage.[1][2][3]

Emerging in the mid-20th century in the urban centers of Kinshasa and Brazzaville during the colonial era, Congolese rumba originated from a fusion of various musical influences, including Kongolese maringa dance music and Cuban son.[4][5][6] Congolese rumba customarily features lively guitar melodies, groovy basslines, catchy rhythms, and danceable beats.[7] The genre's roots can be traced to the 1930s, when African musicians, particularly those from the Congo Basin, incorporated guitar, bottles, and ikembe to perform songs in traditional forms combined with Cuban son.[8][9][10][11][12] This gave rise to soukous, a genre characterized by its lively rhythms, intricate high-pitched guitar melodies, and large brass and polyrhythmic percussion sections.[13]

The style has gained widespread popularity in Africa, reaching countries like Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, Zambia, Ivory Coast, Gambia, Nigeria, Ghana, South Sudan, Senegal, Burundi, Malawi, and Namibia. Additionally, it has found a following in Europe, particularly in France, Belgium, Germany, and the UK, as well as the US, as a result of touring by Congolese musicians, who have performed at various festivals internationally. Musicians such as Henri Bowane, Wendo Kolosoy, Franco Luambo Makiadi, Le Grand Kallé, Nico Kasanda, Tabu Ley Rochereau, Sam Mangwana, Papa Noel Nedule, Vicky Longomba, and Papa Wemba have made significant contributions to the genre, pushing its boundaries and incorporating modern musical elements.[14][15][1]

History

Origins

A proposed etymology for the term "rumba" is that it derives from the Kikongo word nkumba, meaning "belly button", denoting the native dance practiced within the former Kingdom of Congo, encompassing parts of the present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, and Angola.[16][17][18] Its rhythmic foundation draws from Bantu traditions, notably the Palo Kongo religion, which traces back to the Kongo people who were unceremoniously transported to Cuba by Spanish settlers in the 16th century.[5][19][20][21] According to Miguel Ángel Barnet Lanza's On Congo Cults of Bantu Origin in Cuba, the majority of African slaves brought to Cuba were of Bantu origin, although later, the Yoruba from Nigeria became the primary group of slaves in Cuba.[22] Despite the tribulations endured by enslaved Africans, their musical traditions, dance forms, and spiritual practices from were covertly preserved across generations within regions characterized by significant populations of enslaved Africans.[11] Musical instruments like the conga, makuta, catá, yambu, claves, güiro, and cajón de rumba were used to craft a musical dialogue that engaged in call-and-response with ancestral spirits and the deceased.[23][5] Notable figures like Arsenio Rodríguez blended traditional Bakongo sounds with Cuban son.[21]

Late 1920s–1950s

A Congolese rumba group performing in Léopoldville

According to Phyllis Martin's Leisure and Society in Colonial Brazzaville, the popular partnered dance music in the former Belgian Congo and French Congo, which now constitute the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Republic of the Congo, respectively, was known as maringa.[4] It involved a small skin-covered frame drum called patenge for counter-rhythms, a bottle functioning as a triangle, and an accordion known as likembe.[4] The distinctive movements of maringa dancers involved a rhythmic hip sway that shifted body weight alternately from one leg to the other, reminiscent of the Afro-Cuban rumba dance, which later eclipsed older dances and musical forms.[4] The popularity of partnered dancing traversed the Congo region by 1930.[4] Ethnomusicology professor Kazadi wa Mukuna of Kent State University explains that many recording studio proprietors at the time sought to reinterpret the term maringa by infusing it with the new "rumba" rhythm while retaining its original name.[24] In 1934, Jean Réal, a French entertainment director from Martinique, coined the term "Congo Rumba" when he founded an ensemble by that name in Brazzaville.[25][4] Clément Ossinondé, a Congolese musicologist specializing in Congolese music, notes that among the Congolese musicians affiliated with Congo Rumba, Gabriel Kakou and Georges Mozebo were prominent figures instrumental in popularizing Congolese rumba and mentoring emerging local musicians.[26][27][28]

By 1937, Réal had refined his arrangements and equipped local musicians with contemporary instruments, leading to substantial advantages for native artists, including Alphonse Samba, Michel Kouka, Georges Nganga, Côme Batoukama (guitars), Vital Kinzonzi (accordion), Emmanuel Dadet (saxophone, guitar, and more), and Albert Loboko (banjo, piano, guitar).[26][29] Four brass bands were later established in Brazzaville, notably the Fanfare Militaire, the Fanfare de la Milice, the Fanfare Catholique, and the Fanfare Municipale.[30] Dadet and Antoine Kasongo became the first Congolese artists to contemporize Congolese folk music by incorporating new influences into their songs.[30] Dadet's dance band, "Melo-Congo," gained prominence among the white elites, performing a diverse repertoire ranging from more geriatric waltzes and foxtrots to the contemporary rumba, biguines, and tangos.[4] The band enjoyed tremendous success, with performances in Poto-Poto at the dancing bar PICKUP, then at dance halls like Chez Faignond, Macumba, Beauté Brazza, Chez Ngambali, Mon Pays, and Léopoldville.[30][4][27]

Young people grooving to Congolese rumba rhythms in Léopoldville, ca. 1960s
Congolese rumba bar in Léopoldville

In the mid-1940s–50s, the music of Cuban son groups, such as Sexteto Habanero, Trio Matamoros, and Los Guaracheros de Oriente, was played on Radio Congo Belge in Léopoldville, gaining popularity in the country during the following decades.[31][32] Maringa dance music—although unrelated to Cuban rumba—became known as "Congolese rumba", as imported records by Sexteto Habanero and Trio Matamoros were often mislabeled as "rumba".[24] Various artists and groups emerged on the Congolese music scene, with Paul Kamba and Antoine Wendo Kolosoy credited as pioneers of modern Congolese music.[27][4][26][33] In 1947, Kasongo's Odeon-Kinois orchestra, or Harmonie Kinoise, introduced sebene, which is a successive repetition of a certain number of notes, with an emphasis on the rhythm guitar. Kasongo also produced a series of triumphant songs for Olympia Editions.[30][34] In the 1950s, local artists associated with eclectic Congolese labels owned by white settlers began producing a similar style of Congolese rumba, often characterized by a slower tempo and minimal distinctions between orchestras, such as African Jazz, OK Jazz, Conga Jazz, Negro Band, and Rumbanella Band, among others.[26][27] Although the band names frequently included the word "jazz", Martin notes that "the essential musical inspiration came from African and Latin American roots". The name "jazz" was used because young men were bedazzled by the American soldiers, especially African Americans, who were based at a military camp in Léopoldville during the Second World War.[4]

In 1957, Congolese rumba underwent a significant development, with the emergence of two prominent schools: the OK Jazz School, which embraced a style known as odemba, characterized by a fast tempo and influenced by the odemba rhythm from the Mongo folklore of Mbandaka along the Congo River that later evolved into soukous music; and the African Jazz School, which introduced "rumba-rock", a faster tempo.[35][26][36][37] One of the musical innovations of Franco Luambo's OK Jazz was the mi-solo (meaning "half solo") guitarist, playing arpeggio patterns and filling a role between the lead and rhythm guitars.[38] The band held sway over the Congolese rumba style until 1959, when Les Bantous de la Capitale was established, ushering in a third musical school of Congolese rumba.[26][39][40]

1960s–1970s

African Jazz in a recording studio in 1961. Joseph Kabasele is just to the right of the microphone.

By the late 1960s, Congolese rumba was an established genre in most of Central Africa, and it would also impact the music of West and East Africa.[41][42][14] Certain artists who had performed in Franco Luambo and Grand Kalle's bands went on to establish their own ensembles. Tabu Ley Rochereau and Nico Kasanda formed African Fiesta in 1963.[43] Nico's faction, including Mwamba Déchaud, went on to create a new ensemble called Docteur Nico and African Fiesta Sukisa, while Rochereau and Roger Izeidi founded African Fiesta National.[44][45] Others, such as Mujos and Depuissant, departed to join different musical collectives.[44] They were joined by Papa Wemba and Sam Mangwana, and classics like Afrika Mokili Mobimba made them one of Africa's most prominent bands.[46][47]

While Congolese rumba influenced bands such as Lipua-Lipua, Veve, TPOK Jazz, and Bella Bella, younger Congolese musicians sought to diminish that influence and embrace a faster-paced soukous style of the OK Jazz School.[48][26] In 1969, a collective of students, spearheaded by Papa Wemba, Jossart N'Yoka Longo, and Félix Manuaku Waku, emerged as Zaïko Langa Langa, introducing a fourth school of Congolese rumba, characterized by its unconventional structure, abrupt movements, and intricate elements.[26][27][49] Clément explains that the group was most influential in the 1970s, popularizing distinctive features, such as variations in drum tempo, snare drum usage, sebene (repeated musical note sequences), and an entertainment ensemble comprising atalaku (singing entertainers), a unified choir, a soloist, and soukous "shocked" dance, characterized by intricate body movements.[26][27] Pepe Kalle, a protégé of Grand Kallé, co-founded the band Empire Bakuba with Papy Tex, gaining popularity in Africa with their stripped-down, high-energy rendition of Franco and Rochereau's music.[50]

Ndombolo

Koffi Olomide and Papa Wemba performing in 1988

Emerging at the end of the 1980s and drawing inspiration from Congolese rumba and soukouss, ndombolo became a popular and danceable fast-paced, hip-swaying dance music in Africa. Defined by its spirited sébéné or "heated part", ndombolo featured vocal entertainment by atalakus and swirling guitar riffs.[51][52][53][54][55][56] Although initiated by Zaïko Langa Langa,[51] it was notably popularized and refined in the 1990s by Koffi Olomide and Wenge Musica.[57][58][59]

21st century

In December 2021, Congolese rumba was added to the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.[60][61]

Congolese rumba is a musical genre and a dance used in formal and informal spaces for celebration and mourning. It is primarily an urban practice danced by a male-female couple. Performed by professional and amateur artists, the practice is passed down to younger generations through neighbourhood clubs, formal training schools and community organisations. The rumba is considered an integral part of Congolese identity and a means of promoting intergenerational cohesion and solidarity.

— UNESCO, news release

Musical examples

The following example is from the Congolese rumba "Passi ya boloko" by Franco (Luambo Makiadi) and O.K. Jazz (c. mid-1950s).[62] The bass is playing a tresillo-based tumbao, typical of son montuno. The rhythm guitar plays all of the offbeats, the exact pattern of the rhythm guitar in Cuban son. According to the Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, the lead guitar part "recalls the blue-tinged guitar solos heard in bluegrass and rockabilly music of the 1950s, with its characteristic insistence on the opposition of the major-third and minor-third degrees of the scale."[63]

"Passi ya boloko" by Franco (c. mid-1950s). From top: lead guitar; rhythm guitar; bass guitar.

Banning Eyre distills down the Congolese guitar style to this skeletal figure, where the guide-pattern clave is sounded by the bass notes (notated with downward stems).[64]

In a densely textured seben section of a soukous song (below), the three interlocking guitar parts are reminiscent of the contrapuntal structure of Cuban music, with its layered guajeos.[65]

Seben section of a soukous song. From top: solo guitar; mi-solo guitar; accompaniment guitar.

Women in Congolese rumba

Women in a Congolese rumba barroom

While the genre influence reverberated throughout Africa, the spectacle of female artists taking the stage and expressing their melodic abilities was a rarity. In the 1930s, up-and-coming female vocalists like Nathalie and Emma Louise laid the groundwork for the emergence of female artists in Kinshasa and Brazzaville.[66][1] Despite remaining largely anonymous due to limited documentation, they are regarded as prominent figures in the Congolese music scene.[66] In the 1940s, artists such as Gabrielle Maleka and Anne Mbassou made significant contributions to the evolving sound of Congolese rumba as part of Paul Kamba's Victoria Brazza ensemble.[66] By the 1950s, women singers emerged as powerful voices with momentous messages about amorous entanglements, protection, and ordinary struggles, and successes. Martha Badibala, Tekele Mokango, Anne Ako, Ester Sudila, Léonine Mbongo, Joséphine Sambeya, Jeanne Ninin, and Caroline Mpia became influential in sculpting the genre during this transformative epoch.[66][67][68][69] Marie Kitoto became prominent through her exuberant and mellifluous vocalism in chart-toppers like "Mbokamosika". Meanwhile, Lucie Eyenga distinguished herself in African Jazz through her vocal dexterity and later in the fusion of Rock-a-Mambo and African Jazz.[66]

Abeti Masikini in 1978

Throughout the metamorphosing musical terrain, women persistently occupied crucial positions in various studios and record labels. Cameroonian singer Marcelle Ebibi, for instance, introduced electric guitar rhythms to the genre with her opus "Mama é", chaperoned by her fiancé Guy Léon Fylla and Belgian guitarist Bill Alexandre.[66][70][67][71] In the 1970s, Abeti Masikini and her troupe Les Tigresses gained critical acclaim for their performance at the Olympia Hall in Paris in 1973 and Carnegie Hall in New York in June 1974, and sharing the stage with James Brown, Miriam Makeba, Tabu Ley Rochereau, and Franco Luambo in October 1974, during the opening show of the historic Rumble in the Jungle in Kinshasa.[72][73][74][75] Abeti's second album, La voix du Zaire, l’idole de l’Afrique, released in 1975, with hits such as "Likayabo", "Yamba Yamba", "Kiliki Bamba", "Naliku Penda", and "Ngoyaye Bella Bellow", elevated her popularity, especially in West Africa. Her band, Les Redoutables, served as a launching pad for numerous female and male musicians, including M'bilia Bel, Lokua Kanza, and Tshala Muana.[73][72][66]

The 1976 release of M'Pongo Love's song "Pas Possible Mati" is recognized as one of the best female compositions in Congolese rumba.[76] In early 1984, Tshala Muana recorded several albums—Kami, Mbanda Matière, and M'Pokolo—for the Safari Ambiance label. Through her albums and performances, she popularized the mutuashi rhythm, a Luba traditional dance characterized by pronounced hip rotations. Her 1988 single "Karibu Yangu" gained traction across East Africa, fostering the introduction of new female artists such as Faya Tess and Barbara Kanam.[77][78][66][79]

Concurrently, alongside secular Congolese rumba, Christian-infused renditions of the genre emerged as a potent avenue for female expression.[66] Ensembles such as Les Makoma played a pivotal role in establishing the presence of female gospel artists in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, including Deborah Lukalu, Sandra Mbuyi, and Dena Mwana.[66]

Influence

Colombian champeta

African music has been popular in Colombia since the 1970s and has had a significant impact on the local musical genre known as champeta.[80][81] In the mid-1970s, a group of sailors introduced records from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Nigeria to Colombia, including a plate-numbered 45 RPM titled El Mambote by Congo's l'Orchestre Veve, which gained popularity when played by DJ Victor Conde.[82][83][84][85] Record labels proactively dispatched producers to find African records that would resonate with DJs and audiences. The music gained traction, especially in economically underprivileged urban areas, predominantly inhabited by Afro-Colombian communities, where it was incorporated into sound systems at parties across cities such as Cartagena, Barranquilla, and Palenque de San Basilio.[82]

The emergence of champeta involved replicating musical arrangements by Congolese artists like Nicolas Kasanda wa Mikalay, Tabu Ley Rochereau, M'bilia Bel, Syran Mbenza, Lokassa Ya M'Bongo, Pépé Kallé, Rémy Sahlomon, and Kanda Bongo Man.[84][83] Local artists such as Viviano Torres, Luis Towers, and Charles King, all from Palenque de San Basilio, started composing their own songs and producing unique musical arrangements, while still maintaining the Congolese soukous influence, a derivative of Congolese rumba.[82] They composed and sang in their native language, Palenquero, a creole mix of Spanish and Bantu languages like Kikongo and Lingala.[82][86]

Champeta's sound is intimately intertwined with Congolese rumba, particularly the soukous style, sharing the same rhythmic foundation. The guitar and the use of the Casio brand synthesizer for sound effects are instrumental in shaping champeta's distinct sound.[85]

During the Super Bowl LIV halftime show on 2 February 2020, at Hard Rock Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida, Shakira danced to the song "Icha" by the Congolese artist Syran Mbenza, accompanied by several dancers. The track is colloquially known as "El Sebastián" in Colombia. Shakira's performance inspired the #ChampetaChallenge on various social media platforms.[85][87]

Ivorian coupé-décalé

The Congolese rumba dance called ndombolo has significantly impacted coupé-décalé dance music with the incorporation of atalaku, a term referencing animators or hype men who enhance the rhythm and interactivity of performances, into its songs.[88][89][90][91] The first Congolese band to employ atalaku was Zaïko Langa Langa, in the 1980s. In one of their early compositions featuring these animators, the repeated chant "Atalaku! Tala! Atalaku mama, Zekete" (Look at me! Look! Look at me, mama! Zekete!) echoed, commanding attention.[92][93] As coupé-décalé emerged, the Congolese rumba influence remained conspicuous. Notably, with the release of "Sagacité", Douk Saga's debut hit, the explicit imprint of atalaku was apparent.[88] In an RFI interview, DJ Arafat, an Ivorian musician, acknowledged atalaku's influence on his artistic approach. The term has transcended its origins, becoming embedded in the lexicon of Ivory Coast and neighboring countries, though it now signifies "flattery".[85][94]

French hip hop

With the emergence of satellite television across Africa in the early 1990s, coupled with the subsequent development and expansion of the internet across the continent in the subsequent decades, French hip hop flourished within the African francophone market.[95][96][97] Originating in the United States, the genre rapidly gained popularity among youth of African descent in France and various other European nations.[95][98][99] Initially molded by American hip hop, the French variant has since developed a distinct identity and sound, drawing influences from the African musical heritage shared by many French rappers.[95]

By the late 1990s, Bisso Na Bisso, a collective of French rappers from the Republic of the Congo, pioneered the infusion of Congolese rumba rhythms into French rap.[100][101][102] Their album Racines melds American hip hop, Congolese rumba, soukous, and zouk rhythms, featuring collaborations with African artists like Koffi Olomidé, Papa Wemba, Ismaël Lô, Lokua Kanza, and Manu Dibango, alongside the French-Caribbean zouk group Kassav'.[103] Nearly all their thematic elements revolve around a reconnection with their roots, evident through samples sourced directly from Congolese rumba and soukous.[100][103] In the early 2000s, the lingua franca of many French rap tracks was Lingala, accompanied by resonant rumba guitar riffs.[104][105] Mokobé Traoré, a Malian–French rapper, further accentuated this influence on the album Mon Afrique, where he featured artists like Fally Ipupa on the soukous-inspired track "Malembe".[103] The far-reaching impact of "Congolization" transcends hip hop, permeating other genres like French R&B and religious music, all while concurrently gaining traction across Europe and francophone Africa.[85] Prominent artists include Youssoupha, Maître Gims, Dadju, Niska, Singuila, Damso, KeBlack, Naza, Zola, Kalash Criminel, Ninho, Kaysha, Franglish, Gradur, Shay, Bramsito, Baloji, Tiakola, and Ya Levis Dalwear—all descendants of Congolese musical lineage.[104][105][106][107]

East African music

Following the establishment of Radio Congo Belge, with its extensive broadcasting reach in East, Central, and West Africa, Congolese rumba garnered an extensive audience, evolving into a central focus for East African artists to observe and emulate.[108] According to ethnomusicology professor Alex Perullo of Bryant University, Mobutu's Zairianization movement precipitated an upsurge in the popularity of Congolese rumba in Tanzania and Kenya,[109] and pirated albums and cassettes from Kinshasa made their way to local markets in East Africa.[109] Congolese rumba bands, such as Orchestra Maquis Original, established their operational base in Tanzania, alongside Mzee Makassy.[108] Proficient in executing Congolese rumba in Kiswahili, these bands exerted influence over local musicians like Simba Wanyika, Les Wanyika, Fundi Konde, Daudi Kabaka, and Fadhili William, who fused Congolese rumba rhythms with East African linguistic and cultural elements.[108] Kenyan local bands, such as TP Luna Kidi[110][111] and Limpopo International, embraced the Congolese rumba style while singing in their native language, Dholuo, interspersed with Swahili.[108] Meanwhile, other homegrown artists heavily leaned towards the Congolese rumba style, singing entirely in Lingala, to the extent that their local languages were seemingly overshadowed.[108] The popularity of rumba in East Africa, particularly in Kenya, coupled with the evolution of musical tastes, became a musical touchstone for older audiences, with resident bands in entertainment spots consistently including rumba in their repertoire.[108]

See also

References

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Bibliography

  • Gary Stewart (2000). Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos. Verso. ISBN 1-85984-368-9.
  • Wheeler, Jesse Samba (March 2005). "Rumba Lingala as Colonial Resistance". Image & Narrative (10). Archived from the original on 15 January 2016. Retrieved 16 December 2015.
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