Portal:Animals

The Animals Portal

Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, have myocytes and are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development. As of 2022, 2.16 million living animal species have been described—of which around 1.05 million are insects, over 85,000 are molluscs, and around 65,000 are vertebrates. It has been estimated there are around 7.77 million animal species. Animals range in length from 8.5 micrometres (0.00033 in) to 33.6 metres (110 ft). They have complex interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs. The scientific study of animals is known as zoology.

Most living animal species are in Bilateria, a clade whose members have a bilaterally symmetric body plan. The Bilateria include the protostomes, containing animals such as nematodes, arthropods, flatworms, annelids and molluscs, and the deuterostomes, containing the echinoderms and the chordates, the latter including the vertebrates. Life forms interpreted as early animals were present in the Ediacaran biota of the late Precambrian. Many modern animal phyla became clearly established in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, which began around 539 million years ago. 6,331 groups of genes common to all living animals have been identified; these may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived 650 million years ago.

Historically, Aristotle divided animals into those with blood and those without. Carl Linnaeus created the first hierarchical biological classification for animals in 1758 with his Systema Naturae, which Jean-Baptiste Lamarck expanded into 14 phyla by 1809. In 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into the multicellular Metazoa (now synonymous with Animalia) and the Protozoa, single-celled organisms no longer considered animals. In modern times, the biological classification of animals relies on advanced techniques, such as molecular phylogenetics, which are effective at demonstrating the evolutionary relationships between taxa. (Full article...)

Zoology (/zoʊˈɒlədʒi/) is the scientific study of animals. Its studies include the structure, embryology, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they interact with their ecosystems. Zoology is one of the primary branches of biology. The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion ('animal'), and λόγος, logos ('knowledge', 'study'). (Full article...)

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Fromia monilis

Starfish or sea stars are star-shaped echinoderms belonging to the class Asteroidea (/ˌæstəˈrɔɪdiə/). Common usage frequently finds these names being also applied to ophiuroids, which are correctly referred to as brittle stars or basket stars. Starfish are also known as asteroids due to being in the class Asteroidea. About 1,900 species of starfish live on the seabed in all the world's oceans, from warm, tropical zones to frigid, polar regions. They are found from the intertidal zone down to abyssal depths, at 6,000 m (20,000 ft) below the surface.

Starfish are marine invertebrates. They typically have a central disc and usually five arms, though some species have a larger number of arms. The aboral or upper surface may be smooth, granular or spiny, and is covered with overlapping plates. Many species are brightly coloured in various shades of red or orange, while others are blue, grey or brown. Starfish have tube feet operated by a hydraulic system and a mouth at the centre of the oral or lower surface. They are opportunistic feeders and are mostly predators on benthic invertebrates. Several species have specialized feeding behaviours including eversion of their stomachs and suspension feeding. They have complex life cycles and can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Most can regenerate damaged parts or lost arms and they can shed arms as a means of defense. The Asteroidea occupy several significant ecological roles. Starfish, such as the ochre sea star (Pisaster ochraceus) and the reef sea star (Stichaster australis), have become widely known as examples of the keystone species concept in ecology. The tropical crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) is a voracious predator of coral throughout the Indo-Pacific region, and the Northern Pacific seastar is on the list of the World's 100 Worst Invasive Alien Species. (Full article...)

List of selected animal articles

Selected pictures

Image 1
Rotifers
Credit: Frank Fox
The rotifers (/ˈroʊtɪfərz/, from the Latin rota, "wheel", and -fer, "bearing"), commonly called wheel animals or wheel animalcules, make up a phylum (Rotifera /roʊˈtɪfərə/) of microscopic and near-microscopic pseudocoelomate animals. (Full article...)
Image 2
Calcareous sponge
Image credit: Ernst Haeckel
Plate 5 from Ernst Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur, showing a variety of calcareous sponges, a class of about 400 marine sponges that are found mostly in shallow tropical waters worldwide. Calcareous sponges vary from radially symmetrical vase-shaped body types to colonies made up of a meshwork of thin tubes, or irregular massive forms. The skeleton has either a mesh or honeycomb structure.
Image 3
Loligo forbesii
Illustration: Comingio Merculiano
Loligo forbesii is a commercially important species of squid in the family Loliginidae. It can be found in the seas around Europe, its range extending through the Red Sea toward the East African coast. The squid lives at depths of 10 to 500 m (30 to 1,600 ft), feeding on fish, polychaetes, crustaceans, and other cephalopods.
Image 4
Osprey
Photo credit: NASA
The Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) is a medium large raptor which is a specialist fish-eater with a worldwide distribution. It is often known by other colloquial names such as Fish Hawk, Sea Hawk or Fish Eagle.

The Osprey is particularly well adapted to its diet, with reversible outer toes, closable nostrils to keep out water during dives, and backwards facing scales on the talons which act as barbs to help catch fish.
Image 5
Sexual dimorphism
Photograph credit: Paolo Costa Baldi
Sexual dimorphism is the condition where the two sexes of the same species exhibit different characteristics. Differences may include secondary sex characteristics, size, weight, color, or markings, as well as behavioral and cognitive differences. In the butterfly species Colias dimera (also known as the Dimera sulphur), seen here mating in Venezuela, the male on the right is a brighter shade of yellow than the female.
Image 6
Common Brushtail Possum
Photo: JJ Harrison
The Common Brushtail Possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) is the largest possum species and is perhaps the most widespread mammal in Australia. It grows to about 32–58 cm (13–23 in) in length, with an additional 24–40 cm (9–16 in) for its prehensile tail (seen here hanging below the branch). It is mainly a folivore, but has been known to eat small mammals such as rats. It is common in cities, having adapted well to human habitation.
Image 7
Nautilus diagram
Diagram: K.D. Schroeder
Anatomical diagram of an adult female chambered nautilus, the best known species of nautilus, a "living fossil" related to the octopuses. The animal has a primitive brain that forms a ring around its oesophagus, has four gills (all other cephalopods have only two), and can only move shell-first (seemingly "backwards") by pumping water out through its funnel. The shell and tentacles are shown here as shadows.
Image 8
Brittle star
Credit: Hans Hillewaert
Brittle stars, serpent stars, or ophiuroids (from Latin ophiurus 'brittle star'; from Ancient Greek ὄφις (óphis) 'serpent', and οὐρά (ourá) 'tail'; referring to the serpent-like arms of the brittle star) are echinoderms in the class Ophiuroidea, closely related to starfish. They crawl across the sea floor using their flexible arms for locomotion. The ophiuroids generally have five long, slender, whip-like arms which may reach up to 60 cm (24 in) in length on the largest specimens. (Full article...)
Image 9
Bryozoa
Credit: Ernst Haeckel, Kunstformen der Natur (1904)
Bryozoa (also known as the Polyzoa, Ectoprocta or commonly as moss animals) are a phylum of simple, aquatic invertebrate animals, nearly all living in sedentary colonies. Typically about 0.5 millimetres (1⁄64 in) long, they have a special feeding structure called a lophophore, a "crown" of tentacles used for filter feeding. Most marine bryozoans live in tropical waters, but a few are found in oceanic trenches and polar waters. The bryozoans are classified as the marine bryozoans (Stenolaemata), freshwater bryozoans (Phylactolaemata), and mostly-marine bryozoans (Gymnolaemata), a few members of which prefer brackish water. 5,869 living species are known. At least two genera are solitary (Aethozooides and Monobryozoon); the rest are colonial. (Full article...)
Image 10
Pulmonata
Artist: H. Morin; Restoration: Citron
An illustration of various Pulmonata (and one predator arthropod in the lower right), an informal group of snails and slugs characterized by the ability to breathe air, by virtue of having a pallial lung instead of a gill, or gills. Pulmonata was previously a formal taxon but lost its status as one in 2010. The group includes many land and freshwater families, and several marine families. Most species have a shell, but no operculum, although the group does also include several shell-less slugs. Pulmonates are hermaphroditic, and some groups possess love darts.
Image 11
Sperm Whale
Photograph: Gabriel Barathieu
The sperm whale is the largest toothed animal on Earth. The species was hunted extensively by humans throughout history, until protected by a worldwide moratorium on whaling starting in 1985–86.
Image 12
Thysanozoon nigropapillosum
Photograph credit: Betty Wills
Thysanozoon nigropapillosum, the yellow-spotted flatworm, is a species of marine flatworm in the family Pseudocerotidae. The species is native to the tropical Indo-Pacific region, where it lives in shallow reef habitats. Flatworms are hermaphrodites, each being able to act as either male or female. As a donor of sperm, it can grip the margin of the recipient's body, using its two penises in a chopstick-like manner, and deposit sperm on the surface of the skin of the recipient, even while it is actively swimming.

This picture shows a yellow-spotted flatworm photographed in Manta Ray Bay, on the island of Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia. The flatworm is seen swimming to the right at a depth of 12 metres (40 ft) by undulating the margins of its body. The pseudotentacles at the front have simple eyes and sensory receptors to enable the flatworm to find tunicates on which it feeds.
Image 13
Caesio teres
Photograph: Nick Hobgood
Caesio teres is a pelagic marine fish belonging to the family Caesionidae. Widely distributed throughout the tropical waters of the Indian and western Pacific Ocean, this species feeds on zooplankton. It can grow to 40 cm (16 in) in length.
Image 14
Plains zebra
Photo: Muhammad Mahdi Karim
The plains zebra (Equus quagga, subspecies Grant's zebra pictured) is the most common and geographically widespread species of zebra. It ranges from the south of Ethiopia through East Africa to as far south as Angola and eastern South Africa. The plains zebra is mid-sized, smaller on average than the other two zebra species, and thick-bodied with relatively short legs. Adults of both sexes can stand from 1.1 to 1.47 m (3.6 to 4.8 ft) high at the shoulder, are 2 to 2.5 m (6.6 to 8.2 ft) long (excluding the tail), and weigh 175 to 387 kg (386 to 853 lb), with males slightly heavier than females.
Image 15
Redeye gaper
Photo: Steve Ross, NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration
The redeye gaper (Chaunax stigmaeus) is a sedentary species of anglerfish native to deep waters in the western North Atlantic from the Georges Bank off New England southward to the Blake Plateau off South Carolina. It is a sedentary ambush predator that spends most of its time resting on the sea floor on its pectoral and pelvic fins, moving only to capture prey or avoid predators.
Image 16
Black-crowned night heron
Photograph: Alain Carpentier
A black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) feeding on a fish in the shallows of the Chêne River in Montreal, Quebec. These widespread ambush predators average 64 cm (25 in) in length.
Image 17
Flatworms
Credit: Ernst Haeckel, Kunstformen der Natur (1904)
The flatworms, flat worms, Platyhelminthes, or platyhelminths (from the Greek πλατύ, platy, meaning "flat" and ἕλμινς (root: ἑλμινθ-), helminth-, meaning "worm") are a phylum of relatively simple bilaterian, unsegmented, soft-bodied invertebrates. Unlike other bilaterians, they are acoelomates (having no body cavity), and have no specialised circulatory and respiratory organs, which restricts them to having flattened shapes that allow oxygen and nutrients to pass through their bodies by diffusion. The digestive cavity has only one opening for both ingestion (intake of nutrients) and egestion (removal of undigested wastes); as a result, the food cannot be processed continuously. (Full article...)
Image 18
Sponges
Credit: Twilight Zone Expedition Team 2007, NOAA-OE
Sponges, the members of the phylum Porifera (/pəˈrɪfərə/; meaning 'pore bearer'), are a basal animal clade as a sister of the diploblasts. They are multicellular organisms that have bodies full of pores and channels allowing water to circulate through them, consisting of jelly-like mesohyl sandwiched between two thin layers of cells. (Full article...) Included are the yellow tube sponge, Aplysina fistularis, the purple vase sponge, Niphates digitalis, the red encrusting sponge, Spirastrella coccinea, and the gray rope sponge, Callyspongia sp.
Image 19
Coconut octopus
Photo: Nick Hobgood
The coconut octopus (Amphioctopus marginatus) is a medium-sized cephalopod found in tropical waters of the western Pacific Ocean. It commonly preys upon shrimp, crabs, and clams, and displays unusual behaviour, including bipedal walking and gathering and using coconut shells and seashells for shelter.
Image 20
Cymbiola nobilis
Photo: H. Zell
Cymbiola nobilis is a species of sea snail in the family Volutidae. Found in the Pacific Ocean, from Taiwan to Singapore, it averages 6 centimetres (2.4 in) in length; females are larger than males. Because the shell is commonly collected, there has been an overharvesting of the snail, and it is now considered vulnerable.

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A common coquí (Eleutherodactylus coqui), arguably the most recognizable species of Puerto Rico's fauna

The fauna of Puerto Rico is similar to other island archipelago faunas, with high endemism, and low, skewed taxonomic diversity. Bats are the only extant native terrestrial mammals in Puerto Rico. All other terrestrial mammals in the area were introduced by humans, and include species such as cats, goats, sheep, the small Indian mongoose, and escaped monkeys. Marine mammals include dolphins, manatees, and whales. Of the 349 bird species, about 120 breed in the archipelago, and 47.5% are accidental or rare.

The most recognizable and famous animal of Puerto Rico is probably the common coquí, a small endemic frog, and one of the 86 species that constitute Puerto Rico's herpetofauna. Some native freshwater fish inhabit Puerto Rico, but some species, introduced by humans, have established populations in reservoirs and rivers. The low richness-high diversity pattern is also apparent among invertebrates, which constitutes most of the archipelago's fauna. (Full article...)

List of selected articles

Did you know -

Alert robin

...that the robin (pictured) has an average life expectancy of about one year, but has been known to live up to twelve years?
...that the Zebra mussel, originally native to Russia, has spread to North America, the British Isles, Spain, and Sweden, where it is considered a nuisance because it can form colonies large enough to block pipelines?
...that the Southern Giant Petrel is the leading predator to the Emperor Penguin, and may be responsible for up to 34% of chick deaths in some colonies?
...that some goats freeze for ten seconds whenever startled due to the genetic condition known as myotonia congenita, and have thus been dubbed "fainting goats"?
...that Eurasian badgers are believed to be partially responsible for the spread of bovine tuberculosis?

General pictures

The following are images from various animal-related articles on Wikipedia.

Image 1Squid chromatophores appear as black, brown, reddish and pink areas in this micrograph. (from Animal coloration)
Image 2Kelp gull chicks peck at red spot on mother's beak to stimulate the regurgitating reflex. (from Zoology)
Image 3Ecdysis: a dragonfly has emerged from its dry exuviae and is expanding its wings. Like other arthropods, its body is divided into segments. (from Animal)
Image 4Side of zebrafish shows how chromatophores (dark spots) respond to 24 hours in dark (above) or light (below). (from Animal coloration)
Image 5Male Goldie's bird-of-paradise displays to a female (from Animal coloration)
Image 6Conrad Gessner (1516–1565). His Historiae animalium is considered the beginning of modern zoology. (from Zoology)
Image 7Anomalocaris canadensis is one of the many animal species that emerged in the Cambrian explosion, starting some 539 mya, and found in the fossil beds of the Burgess shale. (from Animal)
Image 8Fish and frog melanophores are cells that can change colour by dispersing or aggregating pigment-containing bodies. (from Animal coloration)
Image 9A gun dog retrieving a duck during a hunt (from Animal)
Image 10A brilliantly-coloured oriental sweetlips fish (Plectorhinchus vittatus) waits while two boldly-patterned cleaner wrasse (Labroides dimidiatus) pick parasites from its skin. The spotted tail and fin pattern of the sweetlips signals sexual maturity; the behaviour and pattern of the cleaner fish signal their availability for cleaning service, rather than as prey (from Animal coloration)
Image 11Sexual reproduction is nearly universal in animals, such as these dragonflies. (from Animal)
Image 12Robert Hooke's Micrographia (from Animal coloration)
Image 13The bilaterian gut develops in two ways. In many protostomes, the blastopore develops into the mouth, while in deuterostomes it becomes the anus. (from Animal)
Image 14Siberian tiger (from Mammalogy)
Image 15Non-bilaterians include sponges (centre) and corals (background). (from Animal)
Image 16Linnaeus's table of the animal kingdom from the first edition of Systema Naturae (1735) (from Zoology)
Image 17A Euplokamis comb jelly is bioluminescent. (from Animal coloration)
Image 18The red pigment in a flamingo's plumage comes from its diet of shrimps, which get it from microscopic algae. (from Animal coloration)
Image 19A praying mantis in deimatic or threat pose displays conspicuous patches of colour to startle potential predators. This is not warning coloration as the insect is palatable. (from Animal coloration)
Image 20Predators, such as this ultramarine flycatcher (Ficedula superciliaris), feed on other animals. (from Animal)
Image 21Dickinsonia costata from the Ediacaran biota (c. 635–542 mya) is one of the earliest animal species known. (from Animal)
Image 22Cleaner wrasse signals its cleaning services to a big eye squirrelfish (from Animal coloration)
Image 23A clade representation of seven dog breeds in relation to wolves. (from Zoology)
Image 24Bright coloration of orange elephant ear sponge, Agelas clathrodes signals its bitter taste to predators (from Animal coloration)
Image 25Hydrothermal vent mussels and shrimps (from Animal)
Image 26This frog changes its skin colour to control its temperature. (from Animal coloration)
Image 27The microscopic cave snail Zospeum tholussum, found at depths of 743 to 1,392 m (2,438 to 4,567 ft) in the Lukina Jama–Trojama cave system of Croatia, is completely blind with a translucent shell (from Fauna)
Image 28Sides of beef in a slaughterhouse (from Animal)
Image 29The hawk-cuckoo resembles a predatory shikra, giving the cuckoo time to lay eggs in a songbird's nest unnoticed (from Animal coloration)
Image 30A venomous coral snake uses bright colours to warn off potential predators. (from Animal coloration)
Image 31Animal anatomical engraving from Handbuch der Anatomie der Tiere für Künstler. (from Zoology)
Image 32Animals are unique in having the ball of cells of the early embryo (1) develop into a hollow ball or blastula (2). (from Animal)
Image 33Warning coloration of the skunk in Edward Bagnall Poulton's The Colours of Animals, 1890 (from Animal coloration)
Image 34The olm's blood makes it appear pink. (from Animal coloration)
Image 35Examples of fauna in Olleros de Tera (Spain) (from Fauna)
$Image 36Butterfly wing at different magnifications reveals microstructured chitin acting as diffraction grating. (from Animal coloration)$
Image 36Butterfly wing at different magnifications reveals microstructured chitin acting as diffraction grating. (from Animal coloration)
Image 37Spiral cleavage in a sea snail embryo (from Animal)
Image 38The blue whale is the largest animal that has ever lived. (from Animal)
Image 39The brilliant iridescent colours of the peacock's tail feathers are created by Structural coloration. (from Animal coloration)
Image 40Auroralumina attenboroughii, an Ediacaran predator (c. 560 mya) (from Animal)
Image 41The black and yellow warning colours of the cinnabar moth caterpillar, Tyria jacobaeae, are avoided by some birds. (from Animal coloration)
Image 42Artistic vision: Still Life with Lobster and Oysters by Alexander Coosemans, c. 1660 (from Animal)
Image 43A camouflaged orange oak leaf butterfly, Kallima inachus (centre) has protective resemblance. (from Animal coloration)
Image 44Idealised bilaterian body plan. With an elongated body and a direction of movement the animal has head and tail ends. Sense organs and mouth form the basis of the head. Opposed circular and longitudinal muscles enable peristaltic motion. (from Animal)
Image 45Simplified schematic of an island's fauna – all its animal species, highlighted in boxes (from Fauna)
Image 46A flower mantis, Hymenopus coronatus, uses special Aggressive mimicry. (from Animal coloration)
Image 47Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck led the creation of a modern classification of invertebrates, breaking up Linnaeus's "Vermes" into 9 phyla by 1809. (from Animal)
Image 48Papuan, Australian and New Zealand fauna. This image was likely first published in the first edition (1876–1899) of the Nordisk familjebok. (from Fauna)
Image 49In Roseate Spoonbills 1905–1909, Abbott Handerson Thayer tried to show that even the bright pink of these conspicuous birds had a cryptic function. (from Animal coloration)

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The following table lists estimated numbers of described extant species for the animal groups with the largest numbers of species,^[1] along with their principal habitats (terrestrial, fresh water,^[2] and marine),^[3] and free-living or parasitic ways of life.^[4] Species estimates shown here are based on numbers described scientifically; much larger estimates have been calculated based on various means of prediction, and these can vary wildly. For instance, around 25,000–27,000 species of nematodes have been described, while published estimates of the total number of nematode species include 10,000–20,000; 500,000; 10 million; and 100 million.^[5] Using patterns within the taxonomic hierarchy, the total number of animal species—including those not yet described—was calculated to be about 7.77 million in 2011.^[6]^[7]^{[lower-alpha 1]}

Phylum	No. of Species	Land	Sea	Fresh water	Free- living	Parasitic
Annelids	17,000^[1]	Yes (soil)^[3]	Yes^[3]	1,750^[2]	Yes	400^[4]
Arthropods	1,257,000^[1]	1,000,000 (insects)^[9]	>40,000 (Malac- ostraca)^[10]	94,000^[2]	Yes^[3]	>45,000^{[lower-alpha 2]}^[4]
Bryozoa	6,000^[1]		Yes^[3]	60–80^[2]	Yes
Chordates	65,000^[1] 45,000^[11]	23,000^[11]	13,000^[11]	18,000^[2] 9,000^[11]	Yes	40 (catfish)^[12]^[4]
Cnidaria	16,000^[1]		Yes^[3]	Yes (few)^[3]	Yes^[3]	>1,350 (Myxozoa)^[4]
Echinoderms	7,500^[1]		7,500^[1]		Yes^[3]
Molluscs	85,000^[1] 107,000^[13]	35,000^[13]	60,000^[13]	5,000^[2] 12,000^[13]	Yes^[3]	>5,600^[4]
Nematodes	25,000^[1]	Yes (soil)^[3]	4,000^[5]	2,000^[2]	11,000^[5]	14,000^[5]
Platyhelminthes	29,500^[1]	Yes^[14]	Yes^[3]	1,300^[2]	Yes^[3] 3,000–6,500^[15]	>40,000^[4] 4,000–25,000^[15]
Rotifers	2,000^[1]		>400^[16]	2,000^[2]	Yes
Sponges	10,800^[1]		Yes^[3]	200-300^[2]	Yes	Yes^[17]
Total number of described extant species as of 2013: 1,525,728^[1]

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References

↑ The application of DNA barcoding to taxonomy further complicates this; a 2016 barcoding analysis estimated a total count of nearly 100,000 insect species for Canada alone, and extrapolated that the global insect fauna must be in excess of 10 million species, of which nearly 2 million are in a single fly family known as gall midges (Cecidomyiidae).^[8]
↑ Not including parasitoids.^[4]

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Zhang, Zhi-Qiang (2013-08-30). "Animal biodiversity: An update of classification and diversity in 2013. In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) Animal Biodiversity: An Outline of Higher-level Classification and Survey of Taxonomic Richness (Addenda 2013)". Zootaxa. 3703 (1): 5. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.3. Archived from the original on 24 April 2019. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Balian, E. V.; Lévêque, C.; Segers, H.; Martens, K. (2008). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Springer. p. 628. ISBN 978-1-4020-8259-7.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Hogenboom, Melissa. "There are only 35 kinds of animal and most are really weird". BBC Earth. Archived from the original on 10 August 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Poulin, Robert (2007). Evolutionary Ecology of Parasites. Princeton University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-691-12085-0.
1 2 3 4 Felder, Darryl L.; Camp, David K. (2009). Gulf of Mexico Origin, Waters, and Biota: Biodiversity. Texas A&M University Press. p. 1111. ISBN 978-1-60344-269-5.
↑ "How many species on Earth? About 8.7 million, new estimate says". 24 August 2011. Archived from the original on 1 July 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
↑ Mora, Camilo; Tittensor, Derek P.; Adl, Sina; Simpson, Alastair G.B.; Worm, Boris (2011-08-23). Mace, Georgina M. (ed.). "How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?". PLOS Biology. 9 (8): e1001127. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127. PMC 3160336. PMID 21886479.
↑ Hebert, Paul D.N.; Ratnasingham, Sujeevan; Zakharov, Evgeny V.; Telfer, Angela C.; Levesque-Beaudin, Valerie; Milton, Megan A.; Pedersen, Stephanie; Jannetta, Paul; deWaard, Jeremy R. (1 August 2016). "Counting animal species with DNA barcodes: Canadian insects". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 371 (1702): 20150333. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0333. PMC 4971185. PMID 27481785.
↑ Stork, Nigel E. (January 2018). "How Many Species of Insects and Other Terrestrial Arthropods Are There on Earth?". Annual Review of Entomology. 63 (1): 31–45. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043348. PMID 28938083. S2CID 23755007. Stork notes that 1m insects have been named, making much larger predicted estimates.
↑ Poore, Hugh F. (2002). "Introduction". Crustacea: Malacostraca. Zoological catalogue of Australia. Vol. 19.2A. CSIRO Publishing. pp. 1–7. ISBN 978-0-643-06901-5.
1 2 3 4 Reaka-Kudla, Marjorie L.; Wilson, Don E.; Wilson, Edward O. (1996). Biodiversity II: Understanding and Protecting Our Biological Resources. Joseph Henry Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-309-52075-1.
↑ Burton, Derek; Burton, Margaret (2017). Essential Fish Biology: Diversity, Structure and Function. Oxford University Press. pp. 281–282. ISBN 978-0-19-878555-2. Trichomycteridae ... includes obligate parasitic fish. Thus 17 genera from 2 subfamilies, Vandelliinae; 4 genera, 9spp. and Stegophilinae; 13 genera, 31 spp. are parasites on gills (Vandelliinae) or skin (stegophilines) of fish.
1 2 3 4 Nicol, David (June 1969). "The Number of Living Species of Molluscs". Systematic Zoology. 18 (2): 251–254. doi:10.2307/2412618. JSTOR 2412618.
↑ Sluys, R. (1999). "Global diversity of land planarians (Platyhelminthes, Tricladida, Terricola): a new indicator-taxon in biodiversity and conservation studies". Biodiversity and Conservation. 8 (12): 1663–1681. doi:10.1023/A:1008994925673. S2CID 38784755.
1 2 Pandian, T. J. (2020). Reproduction and Development in Platyhelminthes. CRC Press. pp. 13–14. ISBN 9781000054903.
↑ Fontaneto, Diego. "Marine Rotifers | An Unexplored World of Richness" (PDF). JMBA Global Marine Environment. pp. 4–5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 March 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
↑ Morand, Serge; Krasnov, Boris R.; Littlewood, D. Timothy J. (2015). Parasite Diversity and Diversification. Cambridge University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-107-03765-6. Archived from the original on 12 December 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.

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[9] The application of DNA barcoding to taxonomy further complicates this; a 2016 barcoding analysis estimated a total count of nearly 100,000 insect species for Canada alone, and extrapolated that the global insect fauna must be in excess of 10 million species, of which nearly 2 million are in a single fly family known as gall midges (Cecidomyiidae).^[8]

[12] Not including parasitoids.^[4]

[Zhang2013-1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Zhang, Zhi-Qiang (2013-08-30). "Animal biodiversity: An update of classification and diversity in 2013. In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) Animal Biodiversity: An Outline of Higher-level Classification and Survey of Taxonomic Richness (Addenda 2013)". Zootaxa. 3703 (1): 5. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.3. Archived from the original on 24 April 2019. Retrieved 2 March 2018.

[Balian2008-2] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Balian, E. V.; Lévêque, C.; Segers, H.; Martens, K. (2008). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Springer. p. 628. ISBN 978-1-4020-8259-7.

[Hogenboom2016-3] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Hogenboom, Melissa. "There are only 35 kinds of animal and most are really weird". BBC Earth. Archived from the original on 10 August 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.

[Poulin2007-4] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Poulin, Robert (2007). Evolutionary Ecology of Parasites. Princeton University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-691-12085-0.

[Felder2009-5] 1 2 3 4 Felder, Darryl L.; Camp, David K. (2009). Gulf of Mexico Origin, Waters, and Biota: Biodiversity. Texas A&M University Press. p. 1111. ISBN 978-1-60344-269-5.

[6] "How many species on Earth? About 8.7 million, new estimate says". 24 August 2011. Archived from the original on 1 July 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.

[Mora2011-7] Mora, Camilo; Tittensor, Derek P.; Adl, Sina; Simpson, Alastair G.B.; Worm, Boris (2011-08-23). Mace, Georgina M. (ed.). "How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?". PLOS Biology. 9 (8): e1001127. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127. PMC 3160336. PMID 21886479.

[8] Hebert, Paul D.N.; Ratnasingham, Sujeevan; Zakharov, Evgeny V.; Telfer, Angela C.; Levesque-Beaudin, Valerie; Milton, Megan A.; Pedersen, Stephanie; Jannetta, Paul; deWaard, Jeremy R. (1 August 2016). "Counting animal species with DNA barcodes: Canadian insects". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 371 (1702): 20150333. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0333. PMC 4971185. PMID 27481785.

[Stork2018-10] Stork, Nigel E. (January 2018). "How Many Species of Insects and Other Terrestrial Arthropods Are There on Earth?". Annual Review of Entomology. 63 (1): 31–45. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043348. PMID 28938083. S2CID 23755007. Stork notes that 1m insects have been named, making much larger predicted estimates.

[11] Poore, Hugh F. (2002). "Introduction". Crustacea: Malacostraca. Zoological catalogue of Australia. Vol. 19.2A. CSIRO Publishing. pp. 1–7. ISBN 978-0-643-06901-5.

[Reaka-Kudla1996-13] 1 2 3 4 Reaka-Kudla, Marjorie L.; Wilson, Don E.; Wilson, Edward O. (1996). Biodiversity II: Understanding and Protecting Our Biological Resources. Joseph Henry Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-309-52075-1.

[14] Burton, Derek; Burton, Margaret (2017). Essential Fish Biology: Diversity, Structure and Function. Oxford University Press. pp. 281–282. ISBN 978-0-19-878555-2. Trichomycteridae ... includes obligate parasitic fish. Thus 17 genera from 2 subfamilies, Vandelliinae; 4 genera, 9spp. and Stegophilinae; 13 genera, 31 spp. are parasites on gills (Vandelliinae) or skin (stegophilines) of fish.

[Nicol1969-15] 1 2 3 4 Nicol, David (June 1969). "The Number of Living Species of Molluscs". Systematic Zoology. 18 (2): 251–254. doi:10.2307/2412618. JSTOR 2412618.

[16] Sluys, R. (1999). "Global diversity of land planarians (Platyhelminthes, Tricladida, Terricola): a new indicator-taxon in biodiversity and conservation studies". Biodiversity and Conservation. 8 (12): 1663–1681. doi:10.1023/A:1008994925673. S2CID 38784755.

[Pandian-17] 1 2 Pandian, T. J. (2020). Reproduction and Development in Platyhelminthes. CRC Press. pp. 13–14. ISBN 9781000054903.

[18] Fontaneto, Diego. "Marine Rotifers | An Unexplored World of Richness" (PDF). JMBA Global Marine Environment. pp. 4–5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 March 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.

[19] Morand, Serge; Krasnov, Boris R.; Littlewood, D. Timothy J. (2015). Parasite Diversity and Diversification. Cambridge University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-107-03765-6. Archived from the original on 12 December 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.

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