Cross Temple
Native name
Chinese: 十字寺
A stele from the Yuan dynasty in the ruins of the Cross Temple, displaying a cross at the top. Another stele is in the left of the background.
TypeAbandoned Buddhist and Nestorian Christian religious site
LocationNorth Sanpen Mountain, Chechang Village, Zhoukoudian, Fangshan District, Beijing 102501
Coordinates39°44′34″N 115°54′05″E / 39.7428°N 115.9015°E / 39.7428; 115.9015
BuiltPossibly 317
Rebuilt639, c. 960, 1365, 1535
Cross Temple, Fangshan is located in Beijing
Cross Temple, Fangshan
Location of Cross Temple in Beijing
Cross Temple, Fangshan is located in China
Cross Temple, Fangshan
Cross Temple, Fangshan (China)

The Cross Temple (Chinese: 十字寺; pinyin: Shízì Sì)[lower-alpha 1] was a place of worship in Fangshan District, Beijing. During different time periods in history, it was used by Buddhists and the Church of the East in China, a Nestorian Christian sect known as Jingjiao (景教) in Chinese. It is the only remaining site of the Church of the East in China.

Initially used as a Buddhist temple during the Tang dynasty, the temple was later used by Nestorians during the Yuan dynasty, although some scholars suggest that Nestorians may have already used the temple in Tang. The temple returned to Buddhist use after the Yuan Dynasty until it was sold around the beginning of the Republic of China. In the late 1950s, the buildings at the site were demolished. Only the foundations, pedestals, and steles remain. In 2006, its ruins were named a Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level.

Currently, the site has two ancient steles, some groundwork, and some pillar bases. In addition, two stone blocks carved with crosses were discovered at the site in the early 20th century, and are on display at the Nanjing Museum. The period when the Nestorians used the Cross Temple remains a topic of scholarly debate.

History

There are two stone steles at the site of the Cross Temple. One of them was made during the Liao dynasty, and the other was made during the Yuan dynasty.[4] Because the two steles include dates and names of contemporary people, they are the major sources for the studies of the history of the Cross Temple.[5] However, the inscriptions of the two steles contain errors, so the history of the Cross Temple has not been fully ascertained,[6] and many academic speculations exist.[7]

Early history

According to the Liao stele, a Buddhist monk named Huijin (Chinese: 惠靜) first built the temple in 317, the first year of Jianwu during the Eastern Jin dynasty.[8] In 639 during the Tang dynasty, a monk named Yiduan (Chinese: 義端) came and refurnished the temple.[8] The scholar Wang Xiaojing proposed that the Liao stele author mistook the Later Jin dynasty for the Jin dynasty.[9] The name of the monastery during Jin and Tang is not known.[10]

Meanwhile, Nestorian Christianity was first recorded to enter China in the 7th century during the Tang dynasty.[11] Accordingly, some scholars suggested that the temple might have belonged to the Church of the East in China during Tang. The Japanese scholar P. Y. Saeki speculated that, when the Church of the East in China was affected during the 9th century Huichang persecution of Buddhism, some believers fled from Chang'an to Youzhou and Liaodong and used the temple.[12][13] Tang Xiaofeng also found evidence for the Tang hypothesis: according to Tang, the Liao stele inscriptions from the temple indicated that crosses already existed at the temple before the Liao dynasty. In addition, Tang claimed that another text written by Li Zhongxuan in 987 indicated Nestorian presence in Youzhou.[14] However, Arthur Christopher Moule, a British sinologist, believed that there was insufficient evidence to show that the Church of the East existed in Beijing before the 13th century.[13]

10th century

According to the Liao stele, the Cross Temple used to be called Chongsheng Yuan (Chinese: 崇聖院) during the Liao dynasty, when Buddhists rebuilt it during the Yingli era. However, the exact date of rebuilding was unclear: although the stele suggested the tenth year of Yingli (960), it put "Bingzi" (Chinese: 丙子) for the sexagenary cycle, which does not match with the year.[15] There is a 16-year difference between the two.[4] The Liao stele does not indicate any relationship between Chongsheng Yuan and Nestorian Christianity, and it is believed that Chongsheng Yuan was a Buddhist temple.[16] Xu Pingfang held that Nestorian activities at the site commenced only after the Buddhist activities stopped.[17]

13th–14th centuries

After the Mongols conquered Beijing (known as Zhongdu of the Jurchen Jin dynasty at the time) in 1215, Nestorianism spread in the area. During the Yuan dynasty, Beijing had a metropolitan bishop.[18] Wang hypothesized that some Nestorian passed by Fangshan, discovered the abandoned temple, and turned it into a monastic retreat.[19] Tang Xiaofeng and Zhang Yingying suggested that it is also possible that the Cross Temple was built during this period.[20]

Many scholars considered that Rabban Sauma, a Yuan Uighur Nestorian monk born in Beijing,[21][22] may be related to the Cross Temple. Moule believed that the site was probably near the retreat of Bar Sauma.[23] Shi Mingpei argued that the description of Rabban Sauma's retreat is "extremely similar" to the Cross Temple and its surrounding terrain.[24] In her 2011 book East Syriac Christianity in Mongol-Yuan China, Tang Li asserted that Rabban Sauma came from the site.[25]

Wang estimated that Nestorians eventually abandoned the site before 1358, when Buddhist monks began to rebuild the temple.[19] The rebuilding was completed in 1365.[16] According to the Yuan stele, a Buddhist monk named Jingshan (Chinese: 淨善) initiated the reconstruction because he dreamed of a deity in his meditation, and then saw a shining cross on top of an ancient dhvaja at the temple site.[26] The Yuan stele recorded that the major benefactors were Temür Bukha (the prince of Huai), Zhao Bayan Bukha (Chinese: 趙伯顏不花, eunuch official), and Qingtong (minister), and the inscription was made by Huang Jin.[17] In 1992, Xu Pingfang suggested that Temür Bukha would be familiar with Nestorian practices because of his Nestorian grandmother Sorghaghtani Beki. Therefore, he would request that the Buddhist temple continue to use the name "Cross Temple" when it was rebuilt, and that its Nestorian artifacts to be preserved.[17] However, scholars now generally consider the information of the Yuan benefactors and the inscription author to be false, and that the inscription itself was remade in the Ming dynasty.[27][28]

Wang suggested that the official name of the temple was Chongsheng Yuan during the Yuan dynasty.[19] She further argued that Han Chinese during Yuan used the name "cross temple" to refer to Nestorian churches generally, and the Nestorians at the site would not call it "Cross Temple".[29] However, because the name "Cross Temple" was simple and direct, local residents began to use it after the Nestorian arrival.[30]

15th–16th centuries

Nestorian presence around the Fangshan area and Northern China existed in the early ages of Ming dynasty. During the Zhengtong era (1436 – 1449), some Nestorians were still present in Fangshan: a record shows that some Nestorian monks visited Yunju Temple, Fangshan, around 1437.[lower-alpha 2][17][31] Matteo Ricci, an Italian Jesuit missionary in Ming China, learned from a Jewish person that there were a number of Nestorians in Northern China in early Ming. According to Ricci, the local Nestorians were keeping their religious identity secret, but they still referred to a former Nestorian church as the "Cross Church".[32]

In 1535, the fourteenth year of the Jiajing era, the site was rebuilt by the Buddhist monk Dejing (Chinese: 德景). He was supported by the family of Gao Rong (Chinese: 高榮), nephew of a powerful eunuch official Gao Feng, and local villagers. The inscriptions of the Liao and Yuan steles were altered during the reconstruction, and the temple was officially known as the "Cross Temple" at the time.[19]

20th–21st centuries

Reginald Johnston (left) rediscovered the Cross Temple in summer 1919. A. C. Moule published the figure of a cross (right) Johnston found at the site in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, April 1928.[33]

Around 1911, the Buddhist monks sold the temple and the surrounding lands.[34] According to P. Y. Saeki, Reginald Johnston first rediscovered the site in summer 1919.[35] Saeki himself visited the site in 1931. He recorded that most buildings existed on the site at the time.[36] According to Saeki, the first building after the Shanmen entry was the Hall of Four Heavenly Kings. Beyond the hall, there was a courtyard with two gingko trees, and the Liao and Yuan steles were next to each tree. To the right of the courtyard, there was a kitchen and a dormitory for the monks. To the left of the courtyard, there was another dormitory building. The Main Hall of the temple was at the end of the courtyard, and it contained three statues of Buddha.[37]

In 2006, the Chinese State Council named the ruins of the Cross Temple a Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level. This marker (pictured) near the site indicates its national level of importance.

In the 1950s, during the People's Republic of China, the remaining buildings of the Cross Temple were destroyed.[38] The two steles were knocked down and broken during the Cultural Revolution.[39] In the 1990s, the Beijing branches of the China Christian Council (CCC) and the Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) rebuilt the walls around the Cross Temple site.[40] In 2006, its ruins were named a Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level.[41]

Current state

The site of the Cross Temple is the only surviving Nestorian site in China.[42] It is located near Chechang Village (Chinese: 车厂村), Fangshan. It is 50 metres (55 yd) wide from east to west, and 45 metres (49 yd) wide from north to south. It is surrounded by walls on four sides, with entrances in the north and south. The entire site is in ruins, with no surviving architecture.[43]

There is some groundwork at the north and west parts of the site, where the Main Hall and the dormitory of the Buddhist monks once stood.[6] The groundwork of the Main Hall is 11.32 metres (12.38 yd) from north to south, and 19.6 metres (21.4 yd) from east to west. At the ruins of the Main Hall, there are some pillar bases scattered around. The remains of some stairs are in front of the ruins.[43]

In front of the Main Hall, there are two gingko trees, one ancient and one new. The new one was planted to replace another ancient gingko tree, which was destroyed by fire.[40] There used to be a Shanmen building 17.5 metres (19.1 yd) to the south of the Main Hall. The Shanmen was 7.08 metres (7.74 yd) by 11.24 metres (12.29 yd), but its ruins are hardly noticeable now.[44]

Relics

Stone steles

The Yuan stele features a cross surrounded by dragons at its top, indicating Christian presence.

There are two ancient steles at the Cross Temple site. The Liao stele was raised in 960, and the Yuan stele in 1365. Both were re-carved in 1535. During the Cultural Revolution, the Liao stele was broken in the middle and a part of its bottom left corner went missing, while the Yuan stele was broken into three pieces. Both were repaired and re-raised in the 21st century.[39] The inscriptions of the two steles don't mention Christianity,[27] but there is a cross on top of the Yuan stele.[45] Scholars generally agree that the two steles were from Liao and Yuan dynasties respectively, though their inscriptions, "tampered" with by Ming writers, contain some factual errors on the dates and people.[46][47]

According to Wang Xiaojing, the Ming writers changed the inscriptions of the two steles to claim that the temple received royal charters,[48] that famous figures donated to the temple, and that the temple was larger in size during the Yuan dynasty. Wang believed that the Ming writers did so in order to elevate the temple's status and garner more support and donations from Buddhist believers.[49] Meanwhile, Tang Xiaofeng and Zhang Yingying suggested that the Ming writers based their text on some rumors in order to garner trust from believers.[47]

In the 21st century, a replica of the Xi'an Stele was added to the site. It is placed in front of the north wall.[44]

Stone plaque

There was also a stone plaque on top of the gate of the Cross Temple, with the characters "古刹十字禅林" (lit. 'Ancient Cross Buddhist Temple').[50] Records from 1919 indicated that the plaque was on the gate at the time, but Saeki noted in 1931 that the plaque had fallen off and broken. When Wu Mengling (Chinese: 吴梦麟) visited the site in October 1992, he found one of the broken pieces in front of the gingko trees.[51] According to Wang, the plaque is currently stored by the Fangshan District Bureau of Cultural Artifacts,[51] though Tang and Zhang claimed that it is on display at the Beijing Stone Carving Art Museum.[52]

Carved stone blocks

There were two carved stone blocks at the Cross Temple site. The first record of them was by H. I. Harding, second secretary of the English mission in Peking,[2] who wrote that the stone blocks were discovered by Christopher Irving (pseudonym of Reginald Johnston)[53] in summer 1919. According to Harding, the monks at the Cross Temple claimed that the stone blocks were discovered underground when they were fixing Tianwang Hall (Chinese: 天王殿), a part of the Temple, in 1357.[54]

Fearing that foreigners might remove the stone blocks from the site, Zhuang Shangyan and Wang Zuobin of the Peiping Commission for the Preservation of Antiquities (Chinese: 北平古物保管委員會) surveyed the site in September 1931.[55] Later in November 1931, the stone blocks were transported to the Peiping Museum of History[lower-alpha 3] for exhibition.[55][40] Due to the Second Sino-Japanese War, the stone blocks were transferred to Nanjing, and they are currently on display in the Nanjing Museum. A replica of one of the stone blocks is in the National Museum of China, and two replicas are in Yunju Temple.[40]

Description

The two stone blocks are rectangular with a vertical hollow in the rear. They are 68.5 centimetres (27.0 in) tall, and each side has a length of 58.5 centimetres (23.0 in). For each block, the front face is 22 centimetres (8.7 in) think, and the side faces are 14 centimetres (5.5 in) thick. The front face of each block shows crosses, while the two sides bear carvings of flowers.[55] According to Tang Li, Christians following East Syrian traditions in the Far East often showed adoration of the cross and images.[56]

A stone block (left) from the Cross Temple features the Christian cross on a lotus base and a vase of flowers. The rubbing (right) of the stone block shows Syriac inscriptions from Psalms 34:5-6 around the cross. The stone block is currently in Nanjing Museum.

Although both blocks feature crosses and vased flowers, their carvings are different in details. On one of the stone blocks, the cross shows a Baoxianghua pattern (Chinese: 寶相花紋) at its center, and it is supported by clouds and lotuses. There is also an inscription in Syriac around the cross. On the sides, this stone block features chrysanthemums in a vase.[55]

The Syriac inscription reads:[55][23]

ܚܘܪܘ ܠܘܬܗ ܘ ܣܒܪܘ ܒܗ[lower-alpha 4]

Look ye unto it and hope in it.

— Psalms 34:5-6[lower-alpha 5] (Peshitta version)[58]

According to Moule, F. C. Burkitt found the same text (with the addition of the phrase "the living cross") in one of the Syriac manuscripts in the British Museum.[23] P. G. Borbone claimed that a bronze mirror discovered in Inner Mongolia was possibly produced "in imitation" of the Fangshan cross.[59]

Rubbing of another stone block from the Cross Temple depicting the Christian cross on a lotus base

On the other stone block, the cross also has a Baoxianghua pattern, but there are two heart-like shapes extensions at the left and right ends of the cross. It is also mounted on two layers of lotuses, one facing up and one facing down. On the side, it depicts peonies in a basin.[60]

Xu Pingfang noted that the style of the details of the carvings is similar to other Yuan Erkehün[lower-alpha 6] carved stones, and flowers were a contemporary theme. He considered the two stone blocks "the most exquisite" among the cross carvings from the Yuan Dynasty currently known.[61]

See also

Nestorians in China

Nestorian artifacts

History of Beijing

Ancient sites of other Middle Eastern religions in China

Notes

  1. ↑ In English literature, the site is also known as the Temple of the Cross[1][2] or the Monastery of the Cross.[3]
  2. ↑ According to Xu's transcription of the record in his 1992 paper, it was the third year of Zhengtong era (1438).[17] However, Shi put the second year of Zhengtong (1437) in his 2000 paper.[31]
  3. ↑ Chinese: 北平歷史博物館, precursor of the National Museum of China in Beijing.
  4. ↑ Romanization: ḥwrw lwth wsbrw bh. Pronunciation: ḥur lwātēh w-sabbar bēh.[57]
  5. ↑ F. C. Burkitt identified, transcribed, and translated this inscription.[23]
  6. ↑ During the Yuan dynasty, Nestorians were called "Erkehün" (Chinese: 也里可溫).[29]

References

Citations

  1. ↑ Borbone 2006, p. 7.
  2. 1 2 Marsone 2013, p. 205.
  3. ↑ Nicolini-Zani 2011, p. 356.
  4. 1 2 Tang 2011a, p. 120.
  5. ↑ Wang 2018, pp. 309–10.
  6. 1 2 Wang 2018, p. 310.
  7. ↑ Tang 2011a, pp. 118, 122–24.
  8. 1 2 Wang 2018, p. 317.
  9. ↑ Wang 2018, p. 342.
  10. ↑ Tang & Zhang 2018, p. 88.
  11. ↑ Shi 2000, p. 90.
  12. ↑ Saeki 1943, p. 507.
  13. 1 2 Tang 2011a, p. 123.
  14. ↑ Tang 2011a, pp. 123–24.
  15. ↑ Wang 2018, p. 317-19.
  16. 1 2 Xu 1992, p. 187.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Xu 1992, p. 188.
  18. ↑ Shi 2000, p. 91, "1215年蒙古军攻下金中都（北京）后，景教即传入北京。北京作为景教的一个大主教区，派驻有大主教".
  19. 1 2 3 4 Wang 2018, p. 343.
  20. ↑ Tang & Zhang 2018, p. 92.
  21. ↑ Tang 2011b, p. 108.
  22. ↑ Shi 2000, p. 91, "据史籍记载，当时有一位出生在北京的景教修士拉班·扫马".
  23. 1 2 3 4 Moule 2011, p. 88.
  24. ↑ Shi 2000, p. 92, "值得注意的是，据记载，拉班·扫马的静修处，距城有一天的路程，在附近的山上有一个山洞，紧靠洞旁有一清泉。其地形地貌与房山十字寺及附近的三盆山极其相似", referencing Zhu, Qianzhi (1993). 中国景教 [Nestorianism in China]. People's Publishing House. ISBN 9787010026268.
  25. ↑ Tang 2011b, p. 108, "The Rabban Sauma mentioned in the History of Yaballaha III came from this monastery in Fangshan".
  26. ↑ Wang 2018, p. 318.
  27. 1 2 Tang & Zhang 2018, p. 86.
  28. ↑ Wang 2018, p. 328.
  29. 1 2 Wang 2018, p. 340.
  30. ↑ Wang 2018, p. 341.
  31. 1 2 Shi 2000, p. 91.
  32. ↑ Shi 2000, p. 93.
  33. ↑ Bar Sauma & Markos 1928, Appendix B to the Introduction: The Nestorian Stele at Hsi-An-Fu.
  34. ↑ Xu 1992, p. 185 citing 房山縣十字石刻詳紀 [A Record of the Cross-carved Stones in Fangshan]. Ta Kung Pao, literary supplement no. 195. 1931-10-05.
  35. ↑ Zhou 2017, p. 47 citing Saeki, P. Y. 1951. The Nestorian Documents and relics in China. The Maruzen Company Ltd., Tokyo..
  36. ↑ Tang 2011a, p. 118.
  37. ↑ Tang 2011a, p. 119 citing Saeki, Yoshiro (1943). 支那基督敎の硏究〈1〉唐宋時代の支那基督教 [Research on Chinese Christianity, Book I: Chinese Christianty during Tang and Song dynasties]. 春秋社, pp. 500-02.
  38. ↑ Cao 2000, p. 42-43.
  39. 1 2 Wang 2018, pp. 311–12.
  40. 1 2 3 4 Tang 2011a, p. 119.
  41. ↑ Wang 2018, p. 314.
  42. ↑ Shi 2000, pp. 90, 91.
  43. 1 2 Wang 2018, pp. 310–11.
  44. 1 2 Wang 2018, p. 311.
  45. ↑ Wang 2018, p. 339.
  46. ↑ Wang 2018, p. 320.
  47. 1 2 Tang & Zhang 2018, pp. 87–88.
  48. ↑ Wang 2018, pp. 326-27, "笔者认为，“敕赐”二字是明代改刻重刻碑文的关键所在。“敕赐”即皇帝钦赐的意思。由于该寺未得到当朝皇帝“敕赐”，原碑文中亦未见“敕赐”二字，因此才要编造“敕赐”碑的谎话".
  49. ↑ Wang 2018, p. 338, "这一切其实都是为了让“敕赐碑”显得真实，从而提高该寺的规格，并得到信众的支持资助。拨开笼罩在元碑上的敕赐迷雾，元碑记述的寺庙情况应该是基本可信的".
  50. ↑ Tang & Zhang 2018, p. 83.
  51. 1 2 Wang 2018, p. 312.
  52. ↑ Tang & Zhang 2018, p. 82.
  53. ↑ Zhou 2017, p. 47 citing Saeki, P. Y. 1951. The Nestorian Documents and relics in China. The Maruzen Company Ltd., Tokyo.
  54. ↑ Moule 2011, p. 86.
  55. 1 2 3 4 5 Xu 1992, p. 184.
  56. ↑ Tang 2011b, p. 140, "Adoration of the cross and images was another characteristic of the East Syrian traditions in the Far East".
  57. ↑ Borbone 2019, pp. 137–38.
  58. ↑ Borbone 2006, p. 2.
  59. ↑ Borbone 2019, p. 146.
  60. ↑ Xu 1992, pp. 184–85.
  61. ↑ Xu 1992, p. 185, "為目前所見元代也里可溫十字架石刻中最精美的兩塊".

Dissertations

  • Zhou, Yixing (2017). Studies on Nestorian Iconology in China and part of Central Asia during the 13th and 14th Centuries (PDF) (PhD thesis). Ca' Foscari University of Venice.

Journal articles

  • Borbone, Pier Giorgio (2019). "A "Nestorian" Mirror from Inner Mongolia". Egitto e Vicino Oriente. Pisa University Press. 2019 (XLII): 135–149. doi:10.12871/978883339342112.
  • Cao, Xinhua (2000). 房山十字寺的变迁 [History of the Cross Temple at Fangshan]. 中国宗教 [Religions in China]. 2000 (3): 42–43. ISSN 1006-7558.
  • Nicolini-Zani, Matteo (2011). "Reviewed Work(s): East Syriac Christianity in Mongol-Yuan China. Orientalia Biblica et Christiana, vol. 18 by Li Tang". China Review International. University of Hawai'i Press. 18 (3): 354–358. JSTOR 23733468.
  • Qian, Yuchen (2021). "Another Evangelism: Missionary Visuality as Transcultural Conversations in China and Japan, from Pre-modern to Modern Periods" (PDF). Waseda RILAS Journal (9): 247–63.
  • Qiu, Shusen (2002). 元亡后基督教在中国湮灭的原因 [The Reason of the Annihilation of Christianity after the Overthrown of the Yuan Dynasty in China]. 世界宗教研究 [Studies in World Religions] (in Chinese). 2002 (4): 56–64, 156.
  • Shi, Mingpei (March 2000). 略论景教在中国的活动与北京的景教遗迹 [Jing-jiao (Nestorianism) in China and Its Remains in Beijing]. 北京联合大学学报 [Journal of Beijing Union University] (in Chinese). 14 (1): 90–93. doi:10.16255/j.cnki.ldxbz.2000.01.025.
  • Tang, Xiaofeng (2011a). 北京房山十字寺的研究及存疑 [Studies and Questions on the Cross Temple, Fangshan, Beijing]. 世界宗教研究 [Studies in World Religions] (in Chinese). 2011 (6): 118–25.
  • Wang, Xiaojing (2018). 房山十字寺辽、元二碑与景教关系考 [A Study on the Relationship between the Two Steles from Liao and Yuan Dynasties at the Cross Temple, Beijing, and the Church of the East in China]. 北京史学 [Beijing History] (in Chinese). 2018 (2): 309–43.
  • Xu, Pinfang (1992). 北京房山十字寺也里可温石刻 [Yelikewen Stone Carvings at the Cross Temple, Fangshan, Beijing]. 中国文化 [Chinese Culture] (in Chinese). 1992 (7): 184–89.

Book chapters

Books

  • Bar Sauma; Markos (1928) [Written during the Yuan dynasty, manuscript found in 1887]. The Monks of Kûblâi Khân, Emperor of China. Translated by E.A. Wallis Budge. London: Religious Tract Society.
  • Moule, A. C. (2011) [Originally published in 1930]. Christians in China Before the Year 1550. Beijing: Gorgias Press. ISBN 978-1-61143-605-1.
  • (Chinese translation) Moule, A. C. (1984). Xie, Fang (ed.). 一五五〇年前的中国基督教史 [Christians in China Before the Year 1550] (in Chinese). Translated by Hao, Zhenhua. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company.
  • Saeki, Yoshiro (1943). 支那基督敎の硏究〈1〉唐宋時代の支那基督教 [Research on Chinese Christianity, Book I: Chinese Christianty during Tang and Song dynasties]. 春秋社.
  • Tang, Li (2011b). East Syriac Christianity in Mongol-Yuan China (12th-14th Centuries) (1st ed.). Harrassowitz Verlag. doi:10.2307/j.ctvc16hhv.

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cross Temple.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.